The structure is thought to hold the remains of Kashyapa, a Buddha from the distant past. There are no definite records explaining the origin but some historians believe it was built by Lichhavi King Mandev in the C5th possibly as part of a ritual to bring rain to a drought stricken Kathmandu Valley.
The bow-shaped eyes, which gaze in all four directions, are said to represent Buddha’s omniscience.
Prayer wheels surround much of the base’s outer perimeter which one perambulates in a clockwise direction and to your left is an enclosing circle of shops, eating places and monasteries.
Throughout the complex groups of Buddhist monks sat chanting, praying and giving out blessing to visitors. Photo by Daniel Stephens.
Shops either side of a monastery as viewed from the stupa.
Our images of the stupa were in stark contrast to those of our mode of transport for the day. Here our tuk tuk waits patiently to carry us on the next stage of our journey. This electric, three wheeled carriage was ably navigated through the densely packed and noisy streets by a young lady that would have not looked out of place teaching in the lower years of a primary school.
Lord Shiva is known by many different names; and Pashupati is one. Pashu means leaving beings, and Pati means master. In other words Pashupati is the master of all living beings of the universe. This is how lord Pashupati is eulogized in the Vedas, Upnisada and ohter religious books.
Legends are numerous as to how the temple of Lord Pashupatinath came to existence here. As stated in chronicles, the image of Lord Shiva in the form of Jyotirlinga was covered with earth over the years, and soft green grass sprouted over it. Further, as the legend goes, a cow used to come here mysteriously every day and offer her milk to this holy but hidden Linga of Lord Shiva. When the Gwala (owner) saw that the cow had stopped giving milk since the last few days he started keeping eye on her; and finally came across the place where the cow used to offer her milk. With a natural curiosity to know the importance of the place, where his cow used to make offering of her milk, the gwala dug the place and found the Jyotirlinga of Lord Shiva. After this number of gwalas gathered to worship this Linga according to religious conformity, starting the tradition of worshipping this Linga. As the time passed Lord Pashupatinath started gaining more and more popularity and reverence of the devotees as a guardian spirit and gradually the temple of Lord Pashupatinath became a great place of pilgrimage.
The rulers of Nepal, over centuries made contributions in enriching and beautifying this holy temple. According to Gopalraj Vamsavali, the oldest ever chronicle in Nepal, this temple was built by Supus Padeva, a Linchchhavi King who according to the stone inscription erected by
Jayadeva 11 in the courtyard of Pashupatinath in 753 AD happened to be the ruler 39 generation before Manadeva (464-505 AD). Yet, there is another chronicle which states that this temple was in the form of Linga shaped Devalaya before Supus Padeva constructed a five storey temple of Pashupatinath in this place. As the time passed, the need for reparing and renovating this temple arose. It is learnt that this temple was reconsturcted by a mediaeval King named Shivadeva (1099-1126 AD). It was renovated by Ananta Malla adding a roof to it.Pashupati area is regarded as one of the most important places of pilgrimages for the followeres of Hinduism. Thousands of devotees from within and outside the country come to pay homage to Pashupatinath every day. And on special occasions like Ekadasi, Sankranti, Mahashivratri, Teej Akshaya, Rakshabandhan, Grahana (eclipse), Poornima (Full moon day) people congregate here in far greater number. Pashupati area is also included in the list of world cultural heritage.
Art and Religion
Nepalese expressions of art, classical and modern, are imbedded in the daily
practice of religion. Unique craftsmanship is most easily found in temples,
architecture, shrines, fountains and the design of religious objects.
Understanding the various religious creeds as well as the representations of
gods and goddesses enhances the appreciation of Nepalese art.
Hinduism
Buddhism
Tantrism:
explains Prayer Wheel at upper right
Architecture
Painting
Literature
Bronze
Figures
Jewelry
Pottery
Preservation
of Art
Nepal, the only country that is a Hindu state, boasts tremendous
religious tolerance of the many faiths practiced within its
borders.
Hinduists predominate in Nepal as 86.5% of the population.
The
next largest religious groups consist of Buddhists, 7.8%, and
Muslims, 3.5%
of the population.
Common to all of these religions is the integration of
religious expression within everyday life. In contrast with Western religions,
these religions involve codes for- individual behavior and daily rites of
worship. In the morning, people gather at temples, sanctuaries or river banks to
offer prayers and puja.
hinduismThe word
Hinduism was introduced in the 19th century to define the aggregate beliefs of
the Arya, immigrants who left Central Asia in 1500 BC, and animist religions of
native populations in India.
Basic concepts. Cosmic law rules the good order
of the world, be aware and respect cosmic law. Lead the life of a good Hindu,
observe rules, perform all rites, accept the caste of birth. Caste system
supplies code of conduct and rites done. Encompasses all parts of life; rites
but also who to take drink from, associate with, marry, etc.
Principles of
Hinduism. Dharma religious law and moral code by which people can earn
enlightenment. Karma is the life balance of action and reaction; individuals
responsible for decisions and consequences. Leading good Hindu life will bring
rebirth into a better life. Samsara is cycle of reincarnations determined by
karma. Moksha is liberation from samsara; individual unites with universal
timelessness, ultimate serenity, nirvana. Path to moksha is good Hindu
life.
Each deity has different names, as well as different symbols,
attributes, tasks and powers according to what god it represents. Each deity has
a vehicle, an animal usually which serves master. Primary Hindu gods are Brahma,
Vishnu and Shiva.
Brahma is the creator of the universe. Attributes are the
rosary, the receptacle of holy water, the ladle and the book. Mount is a goose
or swan. Brahma usually represented with four heads, allows him to watch over
world. Very few statues of Brahma since creation is done.
Saraswati is
Brahma's consort and is goddess of knowledge, learning and music. She is often
portrayed with four arms, plying the veena (seven stringed musical instrument)
with two hands as well as holding a rosary and a book. Sits on a lotus riding a
peacock or a swan. Often a crescent moon on forehead. Worshipped by Buddhists as
a form of Manjushri, the Bodhisattva of wisdom.
Vishnu is the preserver of
life and the world. Attributes are the conchshell, the disc, the lotus and the
mace. Mount is Garuda, a mythical half-man and half-bird. He often appears in
some of the following forms:
Narayan, which means "he who guides development
in all fields" or universal knowledge.
Buddha, ninth reincarnation of
Vishnu.
Rama, warrior who rescued wife Sita who had been taken by Ravan,
demon-king of Ceylon.
Krishna, personification of manhood who bewitched
'gopis' (milkmaids and shepherdesses) with whom he frolicked. Forms of Rama and
Krishna more popular in India.
Shiva, the destroyer and regenerator.
Attributes are the trident, the tambourine, the tiger skin, the club, and the
lingam. Mount is Nandi the bull.
Pashupati, master and protector of animals,
especially of cattle, who is the friend of life.
Bhairav, the form of Shiva
eager to destroy everything, including evil. Usually a black statue, with
necklace of human skulls.
Hanuman, the monkey god. Symbolizes faithfulness
and willingness to help. Associated with successful military undertakings and
assisted Rama in fight against demon-king Ravan who kept Ram's wife Sita
imprisoned for 12 years.
Ganesh, (Ganapati) one of the most popular gods in
Nepal. Infallible, charitable and has power to decide fate of any human
enterprise. Universal power. Shiva and Parvati's son. Shiva was away, Parvati
bore a son while he was gone. Ordered son not to let anyone in. Shiva came home,
young guardsman barred him from entering so he chopped off the guard's head with
sword. Parvati terrorized, Shiva promised to bring him back to life by beheading
the first living creature he found in the forest. Saw elephant first, so cut off
its head, rushed back and put it on Ganesh's head. Ganesh always dressed in red,
four arms and body covered with layers of sandalwood paste. Only one tusk, mount
is a shrew, sometimes mistaken for rat or mouse. Consequently all three are
sacred.
Parvati, Shiva's consort. In benevolent forms, Devi, Uma, Shakti or
Annapurna as the "dispenser of abundance." As wreaking havoc, forms of Kali,
Durga or Bhagavati.
buddhismBased on meditations of
GAUTAMA SIDDHARTA, also called Sakyamuni (wise man of the Sakya clan) and later
the Buddha (Enlightened one). Philosophical doctrine and code of conduct. Based
on the three jewels, Buddha himself, dharma, Buddha's teachings and prescribed
conduct, and sangha the community.
Buddha was born in Lumbini, Nepal around
544 BC. Son of raja (title for rulers and wealthy landlords) who sought reason
for human misery. Left his family and experimented and traveled; found
enlightenment through meditation at Bodh Gaya.
Dharma is the doctrine of four
truths discovered through meditation.
Existence is unhappiness.
Everything in life brings suffering, birth, responding to needs and death.
Origin of suffering is in needs, wants and desires of men and being attached to
material values (illusions of the senses).
Unhappiness is caused by selfish
cravings or passions.
Selfish cravings can be eliminated by renunciation
desires and following the eight-fold path:
1. Right views, understanding and
vision2. Right purpose, aspiration and intention3. Right speech4. Right vocation
and honest livelihood5. Right conduct and action6. Right effort and dedication7.
Right alertness and mindfulness8. Right concentration and meditation.
Sangha
is community of Buddhists. Used to mean monastic community but concept
broadened. Showing the path to enlightenment.
About 100 years after Buddha's
death, communities disagreed and split over ways to achieve enlightenment.
Traditional school of Theravada Buddhists follows Buddha's original teachings.
Mahayana school accepts some changes, various ways to enlightenment (became
Zen).
Scripts appeared also introducing changes. Deification of Buddha, and
separation between mortal Buddha like Siddharta who will reappear, and
transcendental ones which are only understood through meditation (Dhyani
Buddhas). While enlightenment reached through individual effort, idea spread
that meditation Buddhas give merit to those who worship them. Bodhisattvas are
humans who reached enlightenment but instead of joining nirvana chose to help
others reach enlightenment.
tantrismMovement from with
the Mahayana school appeared in first century AD in fringe areas of India.
Hindus and Buddhists came into contact with animist religions and integrated
beliefs and practices. Yoga, physical exercises to control body functions,
mantras, repetitive utterances, bijas, magic syllables, use of designs and
objects such as mandala and dorje. Transformed into Lamaism which penetrated
also into Nepal. Purpose was to shorten the road to enlightenment with such
practices.
Prayer Flags and Prayer Wheels take prayers to the sky, to the
divinities. Idea that movement creates power. Prayer wheels rotated clockwise to
send mantra to the divinities. Usually brass cylinder with pre-Sanskrit script,
ranja, writing. The wheel contains parchment like paper upon which the Tibetan
incantation OM MANI PADME HUM (image top)
is repeatedly printed. Some rough translations of this mantra are
Oh, the
jewel (mani) concealed in the lotus (padma) ah.
One specific interpretation
of this incantation is that of a prayer the Boddhisattva Padmapani who controls
reincarnationOh, Padmapani, give me the jewel in the lotus, which is the
blessing on non-rebirth or attainment of Nirvana through the acceptance of the
Buddhist doctrine.
A more general interpretation isOh, may the jewel remain
in the lotus, meaning may Buddha's teachings remain pure in our minds and souls.
Vajra or Dorje looks like two crowns with bases attached by a metal ball.
Each crown has four outer spokes and one inner spoke to represent the meditation
Buddhas, united at the top to convey that they are but one. Means "thunderbolt"
symbolic attribute of Hindu god Indra who is the divine power of natural forces,
and the "diamond", the substance that is translucent and unbreakable. The Dorje
is primarily a symbol of power but is also a representation of the
male.
Ghanta, the bell is bronze and topped with crown shaped handle. The
bell symbolizes the female. In a metaphysical sense, male represents knowledge
and female represents wisdom. Both important to rituals.
Statues and temples
for Buddha or to Bodhisattvas.
Chaitya, a somewhat conical stone structure,
shrines for gratitude or worship. Always show four statues representing each of
the dhyana-Buddhas or meditation Buddhas.
Facing north, Buddha Amogasiddhi
with right hand upward and palms outward to express fearlessness and blessing
(associated with green).
Facing east, Buddha Akshobya, right hand
outstretched with fingers touching earth calling Earth-goddess to witness that
Buddha resisted temptations put forth by demon Mara who was trying to lure him
away from his meditations. Also thought of as calling to witness Buddha's
deserving supreme enlightenment. (blue)
Facing south, Buddha Ratnasambhawa
with right hand palm outward to express compassion. yellow
Facing west,
Buddha Amithaba, two hands folded, resting on lap in meditation. red.
Some
chaityas or scrolls show a fifth central figure, the Buddha Vairocana who is
above or in the middle of the previously mentioned four. Hands folded in front
of chest he is perfect sovereignty as "turning the wheel of the Buddhist
doctrine." white.
Another common Buddhist statue is that of the Tara, either
white or green Tara. Were the two wives of Srong Tsam Gampo, King of Tibet that
they converted to their faith, Buddhism. Deified.
Bodhisattvas honored often
are Padmapani, holds a lotus flower and is master or reincarnations. Manjushri
is honored as bearer of wisdom by Buddhists and Hindus. Holds book of knowledge
in left hand and a sword to strike ignorance with right.
A historical look
demonstrates that artistic expression reflects the religious and ethnic
diversity within the valley. Nepalese art became prominent in the 13th century
through the work of Balbahu, also known as Arniko, an architect for the king of
Tibet and possibly the Emperor of China. Nepalese art is recognized for its
candour, simplicity and harmony balanced with intricacy and decoration. The
Malla dynasty promoted all forms of artistic expression from the 14th to the
19th centuries. Tibetan forms of expression influenced art in the valley
beginning in the 17th century. Tantric and Buddhist themes introduced greater
differentiation between Nepalese and Indian art.
architecturePeople walking the streets of Kathmandu cannot
fail to notice the abundance of religious buildings in the city. Temples exist
near or around royal palaces, as well as at important geographical locations
including the top of hills, river banks or near wells. Private temples were
built anywhere and can be found in almost every neighbourhood.
The temples
are sites of magnificent stone and wood carvings. Most of the stone carvings are
from the eleventh and twelfth centuries and reflect the influence of Indian art
from the Gupta (5 and 6th century A.D.) and the Palasena (10th to 12th century
AD.) periods. Wood carvings are predominantly from the eighteenth century used
to decorate pillars, door and window frames, cornices and supporting struts.
Struts of Hindu temples usually contain an erotic scene which attracts
speculation from visitors. The motivation for such motifs are natural; in
countries where death is predominant, procreation is sacred in some respects as
the embodiment of life-giving energies and fertility. Sexual union also
represents the union of the individual with the universe in the Vedas which are
Hindu texts.
Temples are usually one of three types; pagodas, shikaras or
stupas. Stupas are exclusively a Buddhist temple, but pagodas and shikaras may
be Hindu or Buddhist. Buddhist temples are almost always surrounded by a wall
with a defined entrance way. A wall of prayer wheels often surrounds the temple.
Whether Hindu or Buddhist, these temples are not places of religious gatherings
popular within Christianity and Muslim religions but are sites of individual
worship.
Pagodas (devala in Nepali) are usually square or rectangular with a
simple geometric design. The base of the temple holds an image of the god
honored by the presence of the temple. The temple has several roofs which get
proportionately smaller with height. The number of roofs is usually odd, since
odd numbers are more auspicious than even numbers. Many scholars believe that
the pagoda style of roofing mimics the multi-tiered style of umbrellas held over
royalty or images of deities during processions. The building is usually brick,
although the foundation may consist of stone blocks. The doors and windows are
wood with latticed patterns for adornment. A torana sits above the door, also of
wood or bronze-plated wood, depicting the triumph of good over evil with the
image of a gryphon holding in its grip a naga or kirtimukha. The struts of the
temple (tunal in Nepali), carved wooden brackets which support the projecting
roof eaves at a 45 degree angle, consist of a deity standing upon a lotus flower
above a decorative scene, often erotic, carved upon the lower part of the strut.
The struts in the corners of the pagoda often depict a roaring lion or mythical
animal which conveys power. The roofs are plated with copper or gilded bronze
and the corners of the roofs always turn upward. These corners end in a human or
animal's head facing downward and a bird in flight on the upward slant. A metal
ribbon hangs from the topmost point almost to the ground, symbolizing the path
for the deity to descend to earth and people to rise to the divine. Kinkinimala
adorn the edge of the roofs; unmoving bells with a thin metal clapper which
tinkles against the bell in the wind. One or two bronze bells also stand near
the entrance of the pagoda. Protecting this entrance are bronze or stone images
of dragons or lions. Mirrors often hang from a temple wall; these are a modern
addition to ensure that a woman's tika is neatly placed in the center of her
forehead. Examples of pagoda style temples are the Taleju Mandir in Kathmandu's
Durbar Square, the Golden Temple in Patan and the Nyatapola in
Bhaktapur.
Shikaras are similar in design to Indian temples, best recognized
by a majestic dome roof. Some describe the dome as an unopened lotus flower or a
folder royal umbrella. The base of the temple is square with many stories of
balconies. Two famous shikaras are the Krishna Mandir and the Mahabuddha, both
located in Patan.
Stupas, designed as funeral mounds, usually have a cubic
base with a spherical body and a towered roof. This design mimics the mandala
design, a cosmic representation of the universe conducive to meditation. The
cubic base symbolizes the earth's solidity, the spherical mound symbolizes
water, the tower is fire, the ring above it air, and the crowned top symbolizes
ether. Thirteen steps between the mound and the tower represent the number of
steps to attaining perfect knowledge. Most of the stupa is painted masonry white
but the four sides of the tower hold the omniscient eyes of Buddha. The eyes
watch over the universe, and the symbol between the two prominent eyes is the
third eye which allows one to see beyond and inside the self. The symbol in the
typical position of the nose is the Devanagari script for the number one, to
remind people that only one way exists to salvation. The stupas, designed to
hold remains or relics, are not hollow. People encircle stupas by walking
clockwise, often spinning prayer wheels embedded in the wall surrounding the
temple. Boudhanath and Swayambhunath, the largest stupas in Kathmandu, are
approximately 2000 years old.
paintingThe earliest
paintings appeared in 11th century AD. and consisted of illustrated manuscripts
on palm leaf or rice paper. Thangkas, a more predominant form of painting, are
popular among Buddhists in Nepal as well as in Tibet and date back to the late
14th century. These paintings on cotton are rectangular in shape and usually
longer than they are wide. They are framed with three stripes of Chinese brocade
of blue, yellow and red which represent the rainbow which separates sacred
objects from the material world. Older Thangkas consisted of mineral-based
colors, while current Thangkas are produced with vegetable-based or chemical
colors. Frequent themes of Thangkas include images of Buddhist figures, mandala
designs, the wheel of life design, or depiction of scenes or
stories.
Mandalas are geometrical patterns which assist in the practice of
meditation, as well as symbolize the nature of the universe. The symmetrical
pattern reflects the development of the cosmos from an essential Principle and
its rotation around a central axis.
Other Buddhist symbols are common to
Thangkas and wall paintings. A picture of four guardians may adorn the entrance
to a monastery; two images are benevolent to greet worshippers, and two are
fierce looking to protect against evil spirits. Other symbols are the wheel of
moral law, the umbrella to protect against evil, the victory banner of Buddha's
doctrine, two golden fish which represent wealth, the endless knot of eternal
re-birth of everything, the flower-vase holding eternal bliss, the conch-shell
proclaiming the benefits of enlightenment, and the lotus flower which symbolizes
purity and the release of spirituality from earthly roots.
The fable of the
four unanimous brothers involves an elephant standing near a fruit-bearing tree
with a monkey on its back. The monkey holds a rabbit on its shoulder and a bird
perches on the rabbit. All hold a piece of fruit. The bird maintained that while
enjoying the shade and fruit of the tree, they owe gratitude to him since he
planted the seed of the tree. The rabbit replied that while the bird sprinkles
seed without regard, he watered the seed daily and conscientiously. The monkey
stated that it was his dung, not the planting or the watering which was
essential to the seed's growth. The elephant acknowledged their contributions,
but said that it was his protection of the plant from other animals which made
the tree's growth possible. The moral of the story is that cooperation causes
fruitfulness.
The wheel of life symbolizes the endless cycle of
reincarnations. A demon holds the wheel with fangs and claws to symbolize how
repulsive it can be to participate in life. Buddha is portrayed outside of the
wheel standing erect since he reached enlightenment and escaped the cycle of
rebirth. The center of the image is a circle which contains the three vices; the
rooster symbolizes lust, the snake symbolizes hatred, and the boar symbolizes
ignorance. A ring around this circle shows the six stages of reincarnation; at
the bottom is hell for the doomed, followed by the world of the pretas which are
greedy and slaves to their desires, the last inferior world of the animals
portrayed with a pastoral scene, the human world of towns and villages, the
world of the Titans which wage war against the gods, and the world of the gods
portraying beauty and serenity. Another ring illustrates small images to teach a
lesson; a blind woman using a stick to walk symbolizes impulses created from
ignorance, the potter manifests these impulses with the focus on feeling, a
monkey picking up fruit represents the consciousness of acting on impulses, men
in a boat symbolize that consciousness can create individuality but also
separation, an empty house with an open door represents sensory perceptions
translated into action by the mind (perceptions enter through windows but leave
as actions out the door), a couple embracing shows how sensory perception
creates physical desires, a man hit by an arrow demonstrates that touch excites
the senses with pain or pleasure, a woman filling a man's cup shows that
excitement of the senses creates a thirst for more, a monkey grabbing for fruit
shows desire becoming a demand for more, the expecting mother shows that such
eagerness for more is part of existence, the child's birth demonstrates birth as
a necessary condition, and a man carrying a body shows death as a necessary
condition of existence.
literatureLiterature appeared
in the valley during the 18th century. Poetry is the predominant form of writing
from this period, but most authors are unknown. The following centuries brought
more poets and writers inspired by religion as well as social problems. Musical
lyrics celebrate the beauty of nature and life, or convey a legend.
bronze figuresBronze figures, sometimes alloyed with
copper, appeared in the valley around 8th century AD. These images usually
represented religious deities or legendary figures. The most frequently used
production technique is that of cire perdue, a form of wax casting. Images often
contain embedded semi-precious stones, usually coral or turquoise, or are gilded
with gold.
jewelryJewelry of gold and silver reflects the
preferences of ethnic groups. Gurung women often wear large disc earrings of
bronze and copper, while Sherpa women often have turquoise and silver earrings.
Other forms of jewelry include nose rings, pendants, engraved silver belts,
anklets and bracelets. See sample pictures in Shopping: Souvenir and Gift Items
from Nepal.
potteryPottery flourishes in Patan and
Thimi, a locality near Bhaktapur. Common forms of pottery are terra cotta oil
lamps used to light homes during the festival Dipawali, and flower pots
decorated with peacocks and elephants.
preservation of artPeople constantly express concern
about the preservation of art in the valley. Many temples and statues are in
various stages of disrepair. Two earthquakes, one in 1833 and one in 1934, left
a wake of destruction in the country. Until recently, Nepal lacked people with
the scientific knowledge required for artistic restoration. Authorities also
battle with the establishment of priorities; financing the development of
infrastructure and addressing social and health concerns of the population
detracts money from restoration projects. Foreign aid projects specifically
addressing the maintenance of palace squares and other historical sites are
becoming more popular and provide valuable assistance in the preservation of
Nepalese art.
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